What is the original Shakespeare passage being quoted?

It's the opening soliloquy of *Richard III* (Act 1, Scene 1), starting with "Now is the winter of our discontent / Made glorious summer by this sun of York." This speech is among Shakespeare's most renowned, spoken by the cunning and theatrical Richard as he reveals his reasons for choosing to embrace villainy.

Is Lowell making fun of New England people?

Not exactly — or at least not in a cruel way. Lowell was a New Englander himself and paid close attention to the dialect. His phonetic transcriptions are accurate rather than exaggerated. The humor arises from the contrast with Shakespeare's grandeur, not from any disdain for the speakers.

What does the title mean — "to the sound *ou* he prefixes an *e*"?

Lowell highlights a unique aspect of the Yankee dialect: while standard English uses the *ou* sound (like in "now" or "house"), New England speakers prepend an *e* sound, resulting in pronunciations like "neow" or "heouse." The poem serves as a practical example of this linguistic feature.

What does "loot" at the end mean, and why is it funny?

In Shakespeare's original text, the word is "lute" — a stringed instrument linked to sophisticated, courtly music. In the Yankee dialect, the vowel shifts, making "lute" sound like "loot," which refers to stolen items. This change serves as the punchline of the piece: a single phonetic tweak transforms aristocratic elegance into something that feels almost criminal.

How does this connect to Lowell's *Biglow Papers*?

The *Biglow Papers* showcase Lowell's most notable use of Yankee dialect—a collection of satirical poems presented through the voice of a fictional New England farmer who offers commentary on the Mexican-American War and later the Civil War. This work is part of a broader effort to explore the dialect as a legitimate linguistic and literary topic.

Is there a meter or rhyme scheme here?

No — and that’s part of the point. Lowell is mimicking Shakespeare's blank verse (unrhymed iambic pentameter), but the phonetic respelling makes it nearly impossible to read the rhythm in the usual way. The meter is technically still present, but the dialect spelling keeps diverting your attention from it.

Why did Lowell choose *Richard III* specifically?

Partly because it’s one of the most recognizable passages in English literature—any educated reader from the 19th century would know it right away, making the comic shift into dialect feel more jarring. It’s also partly because Richard is a performer and a self-aware manipulator of language, adding a layer of irony to the whole exercise.

The Annotated Edition

To the sound _ou_ he prefixes an _e_ (hard to exemplify otherwise by James Russell Lowell

Summary, meaning, line-by-line analysis & FAQ.

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This comic piece by James Russell Lowell transcribes the famous opening of Richard III into phonetic spelling that mimics the New England (specifically Yankee) dialect he heard in his surroundings.

Poet: James Russell Lowell
Themes: art, home, identity

The PoemFull text

To the sound _ou_ he prefixes an _e_ (hard to exemplify otherwise

James Russell Lowell

than orally). The following passage in Shakespeare he would recite thus:-- 'Neow is the winta uv eour discontent Med glorious summa by this sun o'Yock, An' all the cleouds thet leowered upun eour heouse In the deep buzzum o' the oshin buried; Neow air eour breows beound 'ith victorious wreaths; Eour breused arms hung up fer monimunce; Eour starn alarums changed to merry meetins, Eour dreffle marches to delighfle masures. Grim-visaged war heth smeuthed his wrinkled front, An' neow, instid o' mountin' bare-bid steeds To fright the souls o' ferfle edverseries, He capers nimly in a lady's chămber, To the lascivious pleasin' uv a loot.'

§01Quick summary

What this poem is about

This comic piece by James Russell Lowell transcribes the famous opening of Richard III into phonetic spelling that mimics the New England (specifically Yankee) dialect he heard in his surroundings. The humor lies in how Shakespeare’s grand, kingly speech loses its weight when you write it out the way a Boston-area farmer would actually say it. It’s a clever linguistic prank presented as literary criticism.

§02Themes

Recurring themes

§03Line by line

Stanza by stanza, with notes

'Neow is the winta uv eour discontent / Med glorious summa by this sun o'Yock,
Editor's note
These are the first two lines of Richard III's opening soliloquy — "Now is the winter of our discontent / Made glorious summer by this sun of York" — respelled to reflect the Yankee New England accent. "Neow" for "now," "winta" for "winter," "Med" for "made," and "Yock" for "York" all highlight the dropped r's, flattened vowels, and clipped consonants that Lowell linked to rural New England speech. The humor hits right away: Shakespeare's most notorious villain comes off sounding like a farmhand.
An' all the cleouds thet leowered upun eour heouse / In the deep buzzum o' the oshin buried;
Editor's note
"Cleouds" replaces "clouds," "leowered" stands in for "lowered," and "heouse" takes the place of "house" — all showcasing the title's declared rule that the sound *ou* receives an *e* in front of it in this dialect. The use of "buzzum" for "bosom" and "oshin" for "ocean" brings additional phonetic humor. The impressive picture of storm clouds and the vast ocean is completely tamed by the spelling.
Neow air eour breows beound 'ith victorious wreaths; / Eour breused arms hung up fer monimunce;
Editor's note
"Air" becomes "air," "breows" becomes "breows," "beound" becomes "beound" — the *ou* rule in full effect again. "Breused" becomes "breused" and "monimunce" is compressed to "monimunce," showing how the dialect also swallows unstressed syllables. The heroic imagery of warriors hanging up their weapons as trophies is undercut by the homespun phonetics.
Eour starn alarums changed to merry meetins, / Eour dreffle marches to delighfle masures.
Editor's note
"Stern" becomes "starn," "alarms" becomes "alarums" (which is actually Shakespeare's own archaic form, kept here), and "dreadful" is clipped to "dreffle" while "delightful" becomes "delighfle." "Measures" (meaning formal dances) turns into "masures." The contrast between the military gravity of the original and the breezy dialect spelling is most pronounced here.
Grim-visaged war heth smeuthed his wrinkled front, / An' neow, instid o' mountin' bare-bid steeds
Editor's note
"Hetheth" becomes "heth" and "smeuthed" transforms from "smoothed" — another *ou* change. "Instid" replaces "instead," and "bare-bid" is a shorthand for "bare-backed." The idea of War as a character who wipes his frown away and swaps his warhorse for a lady's chamber is one of Shakespeare's most striking images, and Lowell allows the dialect to deliver all the humor without making any editorial remarks.
To fright the souls o' ferfle edverseries, / He capers nimly in a lady's chămber,
Editor's note
"Ferfle" replaces "fearful," "edverseries" substitutes "adversaries" (note the vowel shift from *a* to *e*), and "nimly" takes the place of "nimbly." The breve mark over the *a* in "chămber" shows Lowell's intention of indicating a short, flat vowel—he's being quite scholarly in his transcription while still being completely playful.
To the lascivious pleasin' uv a loot.'
Editor's note
The final line turns "lute" into "loot" — just a single vowel change that delivers the punchline. Shakespeare's refined courtly instrument, the lute, now sounds like something stolen. It’s an ideal comic conclusion: with one small phonetic shift, the entire aristocratic scene crumbles into absurdity.

§04Tone & mood

How this poem feels

Playful yet deadpan, Lowell delivers the whole piece with a straight face—there's no sly commentary, only the transcription itself. The humor comes from the structure: the contrast between Shakespeare's grandeur and the Yankee spelling does the heavy lifting. Beneath the mockery lies genuine affection; Lowell was a keen student of dialect and clearly relished the sounds he was imitating.

§05Symbols & metaphors

Symbols & metaphors

The Yankee phonetic spelling: The respelled words are the main feature of the entire piece. They represent the divide between high literary culture and everyday language — and Lowell's point is that this divide is amusing but not something to be ashamed of. The dialect is portrayed with care, not disdain.
Richard III's opening soliloquy: Lowell intentionally selected one of the most iconic passages in the English language. The more renowned and lofty the source, the greater the comic contrast when it resonates with the dialect. The soliloquy is delivered by a cunning, self-aware character, adding a subtle layer of irony to the entire exercise.
The loot (lute): The last word of the passage, where "lute" shifts to "loot," acts as both a punchline and a symbol of the entire project. Just one vowel change transforms something elegant into something that feels almost shady. Through this, Lowell highlights how deeply pronunciation can affect meaning.
Grim-visaged War: Shakespeare's portrayal of War — fierce on the battlefield yet absurdly delicate in a lady's chamber — reflects the poem's own humorous contrast between the grand and the everyday. In Lowell's version, War doesn't just soften; he "smeuths" his front, giving him a hint of ridiculousness.

§06Historical context

Historical context

James Russell Lowell published his *Biglow Papers* (First Series, 1848; Second Series, 1867), a significant work of American dialect humor and political satire that channels the voice of a fictional Yankee farmer. This piece stems from Lowell's broader intellectual effort: a thoughtful, humorous exploration of the New England dialect as a vibrant linguistic system. He was among the first American writers to regard regional speech as deserving of detailed phonetic study instead of ridicule. The excerpt he chose to respell — the famous opening lines of Shakespeare's *Richard III* — was one of the most quoted passages in the 19th-century English-speaking world, making it perfect material for his purpose. Additionally, as a Harvard professor and editor of *The Atlantic Monthly*, Lowell's dialect work had a unique quality: the scholar who knew Shakespeare intimately was also the one eager to present Shakespeare's words in the voice of a Yankee farmer.

§07FAQ

Questions readers ask

It's both at once. Lowell is making a specific phonetic argument—that New England speakers add an *e* to the *ou* sound—and he's illustrating it with a well-known passage from Shakespeare. The humor serves as the vehicle, but the linguistic observation is accurate and clear.

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To the sound _ou_ he prefixes an _e_ (hard to exemplify otherwise by James Russell Lowell

To the sound _ou_ he prefixes an _e_ (hard to exemplify otherwise

What this poem is about

Recurring themes

Stanza by stanza, with notes

How this poem feels

Symbols & metaphors

Historical context

Questions readers ask

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