HIAWATHA AND MUDJEKEEWIS by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow: Summary, Meaning & Analysis
Hiawatha, now a young man equipped with magical gear, heads west to face Mudjekeewis, the Wind-King and his father, who abandoned and hurt his mother.
The poem
Out of childhood into manhood Now had grown my Hiawatha, Skilled in all the craft of hunters, Learned in all the lore of old men, In all youthful sports and pastimes, In all manly arts and labors. Swift of foot was Hiawatha; He could shoot an arrow from him, And run forward with such fleetness, That the arrow fell behind him! Strong of arm was Hiawatha; He could shoot ten arrows upward, Shoot them with such strength and swiftness, That the tenth had left the bow-string Ere the first to earth had fallen! He had mittens, Minjekahwun, Magic mittens made of deer-skin; When upon his hands he wore them, He could smite the rocks asunder, He could grind them into powder. He had moccasins enchanted, Magic moccasins of deer-skin; When he bound them round his ankles, When upon his feet he tied them, At each stride a mile he measured! Much he questioned old Nokomis Of his father Mudjekeewis; Learned from her the fatal secret Of the beauty of his mother, Of the falsehood of his father; And his heart was hot within him, Like a living coal his heart was. Then he said to old Nokomis, "I will go to Mudjekeewis, See how fares it with my father, At the doorways of the West-Wind, At the portals of the Sunset!" From his lodge went Hiawatha, Dressed for travel, armed for hunting; Dressed in deer-skin shirt and leggings, Richly wrought with quills and wampum; On his head his eagle-feathers, Round his waist his belt of wampum, In his hand his bow of ash-wood, Strung with sinews of the reindeer; In his quiver oaken arrows, Tipped with jasper, winged with feathers; With his mittens, Minjekahwun, With his moccasins enchanted. Warning said the old Nokomis, "Go not forth, O Hiawatha! To the kingdom of the West-Wind, To the realms of Mudjekeewis, Lest he harm you with his magic, Lest he kill you with his cunning!" But the fearless Hiawatha Heeded not her woman's warning; Forth he strode into the forest, At each stride a mile he measured; Lurid seemed the sky above him, Lurid seemed the earth beneath him, Hot and close the air around him, Filled with smoke and fiery vapors, As of burning woods and prairies, For his heart was hot within him, Like a living coal his heart was. So he journeyed westward, westward, Left the fleetest deer behind him, Left the antelope and bison; Crossed the rushing Esconaba, Crossed the mighty Mississippi, Passed the Mountains of the Prairie, Passed the land of Crows and Foxes, Passed the dwellings of the Blackfeet, Came unto the Rocky Mountains, To the kingdom of the West-Wind, Where upon the gusty summits Sat the ancient Mudjekeewis, Ruler of the winds of heaven. Filled with awe was Hiawatha At the aspect of his father. On the air about him wildly Tossed and streamed his cloudy tresses, Gleamed like drifting snow his tresses, Glared like Ishkoodah, the comet, Like the star with fiery tresses. Filled with joy was Mudjekeewis When he looked on Hiawatha, Saw his youth rise up before him In the face of Hiawatha, Saw the beauty of Wenonah From the grave rise up before him. "Welcome!" said he, "Hiawatha, To the kingdom of the West-Wind! Long have I been waiting for you! Youth is lovely, age is lonely, Youth is fiery, age is frosty; You bring back the days departed, You bring back my youth of passion, And the beautiful Wenonah!" Many days they talked together, Questioned, listened, waited, answered; Much the mighty Mudjekeewis Boasted of his ancient prowess, Of his perilous adventures, His indomitable courage, His invulnerable body. Patiently sat Hiawatha, Listening to his father's boasting; With a smile he sat and listened, Uttered neither threat nor menace, Neither word nor look betrayed him, But his heart was hot within him, Like a living coal his heart was. Then he said, "O Mudjekeewis, Is there nothing that can harm you? Nothing that you are afraid of?" And the mighty Mudjekeewis, Grand and gracious in his boasting, Answered, saying, "There is nothing, Nothing but the black rock yonder, Nothing but the fatal Wawbeek!" And he looked at Hiawatha With a wise look and benignant, With a countenance paternal, Looked with pride upon the beauty Of his tall and graceful figure, Saying, "O my Hiawatha! Is there anything can harm you? Anything you are afraid of?" But the wary Hiawatha Paused awhile, as if uncertain, Held his peace, as if resolving, And then answered, "There is nothing, Nothing but the bulrush yonder, Nothing but the great Apukwa!" And as Mudjekeewis, rising, Stretched his hand to pluck the bulrush, Hiawatha cried in terror, Cried in well-dissembled terror, "Kago! kago! do not touch it!" "Ah, kaween!" said Mudjekeewis, "No indeed, I will not touch it!" Then they talked of other matters; First of Hiawatha's brothers, First of Wabun, of the East-Wind, Of the South-Wind, Shawondasee, Of the North, Kabibonokka; Then of Hiawatha's mother, Of the beautiful Wenonah, Of her birth upon the meadow, Of her death, as old Nokomis Had remembered and related. And he cried, "O Mudjekeewis, It was you who killed Wenonah, Took her young life and her beauty, Broke the Lily of the Prairie, Trampled it beneath your footsteps; You confess it! you confess it!" And the mighty Mudjekeewis Tossed upon the wind his tresses, Bowed his hoary head in anguish, With a silent nod assented. Then up started Hiawatha, And with threatening look and gesture Laid his hand upon the black rock, On the fatal Wawbeek laid it, With his mittens, Minjekahwun, Rent the jutting crag asunder, Smote and crushed it into fragments, Hurled them madly at his father, The remorseful Mudjekeewis, For his heart was hot within him, Like a living coal his heart was. But the ruler of the West-Wind Blew the fragments backward from him, With the breathing of his nostrils, With the tempest of his anger, Blew them back at his assailant; Seized the bulrush, the Apukwa, Dragged it with its roots and fibres From the margin of the meadow, From its ooze the giant bulrush; Long and loud laughed Hiawatha! Then began the deadly conflict, Hand to hand among the mountains; From his eyry screamed the eagle, The Keneu, the great war-eagle, Sat upon the crags around them, Wheeling flapped his wings above them. Like a tall tree in the tempest Bent and lashed the giant bulrush; And in masses huge and heavy Crashing fell the fatal Wawbeek; Till the earth shook with the tumult And confusion of the battle, And the air was full of shoutings, And the thunder of the mountains, Starting, answered, "Baim-wawa!" Back retreated Mudjekeewis, Rushing westward o'er the mountains, Stumbling westward down the mountains, Three whole days retreated fighting, Still pursued by Hiawatha To the doorways of the West-Wind, To the portals of the Sunset, To the earth's remotest border, Where into the empty spaces Sinks the sun, as a flamingo Drops into her nest at nightfall, In the melancholy marshes. "Hold!" at length cried Mudjekeewis, "Hold, my son, my Hiawatha! 'T is impossible to kill me, For you cannot kill the immortal. I have put you to this trial, But to know and prove your courage; Now receive the prize of valor! "Go back to your home and people, Live among them, toil among them, Cleanse the earth from all that harms it, Clear the fishing-grounds and rivers, Slay all monsters and magicians, All the Wendigoes, the giants, All the serpents, the Kenabeeks, As I slew the Mishe-Mokwa, Slew the Great Bear of the mountains. "And at last when Death draws near you, When the awful eyes of Pauguk Glare upon you in the darkness, I will share my kingdom with you, Ruler shall you be thenceforward Of the Northwest-Wind, Keewaydin, Of the home-wind, the Keewaydin." Thus was fought that famous battle In the dreadful days of Shah-shah, In the days long since departed, In the kingdom of the West-Wind. Still the hunter sees its traces Scattered far o'er hill and valley; Sees the giant bulrush growing By the ponds and water-courses, Sees the masses of the Wawbeek Lying still in every valley. Homeward now went Hiawatha; Pleasant was the landscape round him, Pleasant was the air above him, For the bitterness of anger Had departed wholly from him, From his brain the thought of vengeance, From his heart the burning fever. Only once his pace he slackened, Only once he paused or halted, Paused to purchase heads of arrows Of the ancient Arrow-maker, In the land of the Dacotahs, Where the Falls of Minnehaha Flash and gleam among the oak-trees, Laugh and leap into the valley. There the ancient Arrow-maker Made his arrow-heads of sandstone, Arrow-heads of chalcedony, Arrow-heads of flint and jasper, Smoothed and sharpened at the edges, Hard and polished, keen and costly. With him dwelt his dark-eyed daughter, Wayward as the Minnehaha, With her moods of shade and sunshine, Eyes that smiled and frowned alternate, Feet as rapid as the river, Tresses flowing like the water, And as musical a laughter; And he named her from the river, From the water-fall he named her, Minnehaha, Laughing Water. Was it then for heads of arrows, Arrow-heads of chalcedony, Arrow-heads of flint and jasper, That my Hiawatha halted In the land of the Dacotahs? Was it not to see the maiden, See the face of Laughing Water Peeping from behind the curtain, Hear the rustling of her garments From behind the waving curtain, As one sees the Minnehaha Gleaming, glancing through the branches, As one hears the Laughing Water From behind its screen of branches? Who shall say what thoughts and visions Fill the fiery brains of young men? Who shall say what dreams of beauty Filled the heart of Hiawatha? All he told to old Nokomis, When he reached the lodge at sunset, Was the meeting with his father, Was his fight with Mudjekeewis; Not a word he said of arrows, Not a word of Laughing Water. V
Hiawatha, now a young man equipped with magical gear, heads west to face Mudjekeewis, the Wind-King and his father, who abandoned and hurt his mother. They engage in an epic battle across the mountains, but Mudjekeewis reveals that this was a test of courage. He rewards Hiawatha with a heroic mission and a share of his kingdom. On his way home, Hiawatha pauses at the Falls of Minnehaha and sees the girl who will become his great love for the first time — yet he keeps this secret to himself.
Line-by-line
Out of childhood into manhood / Now had grown my Hiawatha,
Much he questioned old Nokomis / Of his father Mudjekeewis;
From his lodge went Hiawatha, / Dressed for travel, armed for hunting;
So he journeyed westward, westward, / Left the fleetest deer behind him,
Filled with awe was Hiawatha / At the aspect of his father.
Many days they talked together, / Questioned, listened, waited, answered;
And he cried, 'O Mudjekeewis, / It was you who killed Wenonah,'
'Hold!' at length cried Mudjekeewis, / 'Hold, my son, my Hiawatha!'
Thus was fought that famous battle / In the dreadful days of Shah-shah,
Homeward now went Hiawatha; / Pleasant was the landscape round him,
Was it then for heads of arrows, / Arrow-heads of chalcedony,
Tone & mood
The tone shifts through various distinct registers throughout the canto. It begins with the grand, rhythmic confidence typical of epic poetry—formal and repetitive, steadily building. During the confrontation, it becomes tense and controlled, with rage simmering just beneath the surface. The battle scene is loud and nearly operatic. Finally, in the last movement, the tone shifts to a soft warmth, laced with gentle irony, as Longfellow playfully nudges the reader about the true motivations of young men who pause at a waterfall.
Symbols & metaphors
- The living coal (heart) — The refrain 'his heart was hot within him, / Like a living coal his heart was' serves as the poem's central image for Hiawatha's rage fueled by grief. A coal isn’t a flame—it burns steadily and quietly, reflecting how Hiawatha conceals his anger and keeps it in check until he decides to unleash it.
- The West-Wind / Mudjekeewis's kingdom — The West, where the sun sets, is often seen in many Indigenous traditions as a symbol of endings and the afterlife. Hiawatha's journey west to face his father signifies his path toward confronting his origins and addressing the deep wound at the core of his identity.
- The magic mittens and moccasins (Minjekahwun) — These enchanted items illustrate Hiawatha's preparedness for a heroic life. They are gifts from nature—deer skin—turned into something extraordinary, indicating that his strength stems from his bond with the land and its creatures, rather than divine lineage.
- The black rock (Wawbeek) and the bulrush (Apukwa) — Each fighter has a hidden weakness, exchanged in a game of clever tactics. The rock and the plant represent opposites—solid and flexible, enduring and adaptable—and the way both men disguise their real fears demonstrates that wit is just as important as brute force in this world.
- The Falls of Minnehaha — The waterfall is a tangible location and also a symbol of the future awaiting Hiawatha. After the intense darkness and heat of his quest for revenge, the sparkling water signifies renewal, beauty, and the start of love — the next chapter in his life.
- Eagle feathers / war-eagle (Keneu) — The eagle features prominently in Hiawatha's ceremonial dress and stands as a witness to the battle, screeching from the cliffs. In various Native American traditions, the eagle serves as a bridge between the human realm and the spiritual world. Its presence in this context elevates the conflict beyond a personal struggle — it becomes a mythic event with cosmic importance.
Historical context
Longfellow released *The Song of Hiawatha* in 1855, during a time when American authors were eager to create a uniquely American mythology. He drew inspiration from the ethnographic work of Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, who had recorded Ojibwe oral traditions in the 1830s and 1840s. However, Longfellow also took creative liberties and combined stories from various Native nations. For the poem's distinctive meter—trochaic tetrameter—he took cues from the Finnish national epic *Kalevala*, published in 1835. The poem sparked immediate debate: some hailed it as the American epic the nation needed, while others criticized the awkward borrowed meter or claimed it romanticized its themes. This section, "Hiawatha and Mudjekeewis," is the fifth part of the longer piece and depicts Hiawatha's coming-of-age struggle with his absent and destructive father—a narrative that resonated with readers from different backgrounds, even as its ethnographic authenticity was disputed from the outset.
FAQ
A young man named Hiawatha, who was brought up by his grandmother, learns that his father not only abandoned but also played a role in his mother's death. Determined to confront him, Hiawatha embarks on a journey across the continent. The two engage in a fierce battle, during which his father ultimately reveals that it was all a test and assigns Hiawatha a heroic mission. While returning home, Hiawatha encounters the girl he will eventually fall in love with.
There was indeed a historical figure named Hiawatha — a leader of the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) who played a key role in establishing the Iroquois Confederacy, likely during the 15th or 16th century. However, Longfellow's Hiawatha is a distinct character inspired by Ojibwe oral traditions documented by ethnographer Henry Rowe Schoolcraft. The only connection between the two is their name.
That repetition is a purposeful technique drawn from oral epic poetry. In cultures where stories are shared verbally, repeated phrases, known as 'kennings' or 'refrains,' assist listeners in following a character's emotional journey and provide the storyteller with a rhythmic base. Longfellow employs this method to ensure Hiawatha's repressed anger remains evident to the reader, even when the character doesn’t display it on the surface.
Trochaic tetrameter consists of four feet in each line, with each foot featuring a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed one — creating a rhythm of DUM-da DUM-da DUM-da DUM-da. Longfellow drew this directly from the Finnish epic *Kalevala*. He sought a meter that felt distinct from typical English poetry, aiming for a sound that was ancient and non-European, which would lend the poem the essence of authentic oral tradition.
Mudjekeewis is immortal and truly cannot be killed, so the fight was always destined to conclude this way. The poem leaves it unclear whether his 'it was a test' speech is rooted in sincere fatherly pride or just a way to save face after being pushed back for three days. What matters is the result: Hiawatha's anger has faded, he gets a mission, and he returns home transformed.
Minnehaha, meaning 'Laughing Water,' is the daughter of the Arrow-maker, and Hiawatha first sees her at the Falls of Minnehaha, which is a real waterfall located in modern-day Minneapolis. She later becomes his wife in the poem. Her introduction marks a clear shift in tone—following the violence and sorrow of the main narrative, Longfellow opens the door to love and hope for the future, and he does so with a playful, almost teasing approach.
Yes, many readers and scholars feel this way. Longfellow wrote from an outside perspective regarding the cultures he portrayed, and his poem simplifies diverse Native nations into a single, romanticized 'Indian' mythology. It also contributed to the 19th-century view that saw Indigenous peoples as part of a disappearing, mythical past rather than a vibrant present. While many Indigenous scholars and writers have critiqued it for these reasons, others recognize its impact on how non-Native Americans perceive the continent's history.
The West holds significant symbolic meaning in this context. In various Native traditions, the west represents endings, the setting sun, and the afterlife — making it a fitting direction for a journey that confronts the past. This also aligns with the 19th-century American notion of the West as a site of challenges and change. Longfellow references real rivers and mountain ranges, anchoring the myth in genuine North American geography.