Who is the 'General' mentioned at the start?

The entry is intentionally ambiguous, but it probably alludes to a mix of the military and political figures that Lowell mocked in *The Biglow Papers* — individuals who turned their military service into political gain while adapting their principles as needed. One clear example is General Lewis Cass, who is mentioned later in the same index.

Why does Lowell attack Calhoun so much more than the others?

John C. Calhoun was a highly influential and threatening proponent of slavery in American politics. He didn’t merely accept slavery; he claimed it was a moral good and essential for civilization. For abolitionists like Lowell, Calhoun represented the primary adversary, and the entry's length and intensity illustrate this animosity. The "cow-bell curfew" metaphor suggests that Calhoun aimed to completely suppress the progressive spirit of his time.

What does 'takes a revolving position' mean?

It suggests that the candidate adjusts his stated position based on his audience. Lowell is poking fun at the political tendency — common both then and now — of delivering varying messages to different groups on the same topic, especially regarding slavery in new territories.

What is 'The Biglow Papers' and where does this index fit in?

*The Biglow Papers* is a collection of satirical poems and prose pieces that Lowell published in two series (1848 and 1867). The first series critiques the Mexican-American War and slavery. A mock index is included as part of the satirical scholarly apparatus Lowell created to frame the work — complete with fake footnotes, fake letters, and fake reference tools that poke fun at the self-importance of academic and political writing.

What does 'Sir Kay of modern chivalry' mean when applied to Calhoun?

Sir Kay is King Arthur's foster brother in Arthurian legend—a knight known for his boasting, blundering, and inability to succeed at the quests he boldly claims he can conquer. Referring to Calhoun as the "Sir Kay of modern chivalry" suggests that he portrays himself as a defender of Southern honor and tradition, yet he ends up being a pompous failure whose philosophy lacks substance.

Why is Caesar's 'veni, vidi, vici' called too wordy?

It works as a joke on two levels. First, it’s absurdist: three words are the exact opposite of verbose. Second, it offers a satirical comparison—compared to the inflated and vague political speeches that surrounded Lowell, even Caesar's famous brevity might come off as long-winded. This joke prompts the reader to reflect on the excessive fluff often found in real political language.

Is Lowell anti-democracy? He calls voters 'cabbage-heads.'

Not quite. Lowell held democratic ideals but was outraged by how easily demagogues manipulated voters and how the political system favored vagueness and cowardice. The phrase "Cabbage-heads always in majority" reflects his frustration, diagnosing the consequences when citizens cease to think critically rather than outright rejecting democracy. His entire aim in *The Biglow Papers* is to jolt those voters awake through humor.

The Annotated Edition

, General, by James Russell Lowell

Summary, meaning, line-by-line analysis & FAQ.

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Poet: James Russell Lowell
Themes: anger, identity, justice

The PoemFull text

, General,

James Russell Lowell

commended for parts, for ubiquity, for consistency, for fidelity, is in favor of war, his curious valuation of principle. Cabbage-heads, the, always in majority. Cabinet, English, makes a blunder. Cæsar, tribute to, his veni, vidi, vici, censured for undue prolixity. Cainites, sect of, supposed still extant. Caleb, a monopoly of his denied, curious notions of, as to meaning of 'shelter,' his definition of Anglo-Saxon, charges Mexicans (not with bayonets but) with improprieties. Calhoun, Hon. J.C., his cow-bell curfew, light of the nineteenth century to be extinguished at sound of, cannot let go apron-string of the Past, his unsuccessful tilt at Spirit of the Age, the Sir Kay of modern chivalry, his anchor made of a crooked pin, mentioned. _Calyboosus, carcer_. Cambridge Platform, use discovered for. Canaan in quarterly instalments. Canary Islands. Candidate, presidential, letter from, smells a rat, against a bank, takes a revolving position, opinion of pledges, is a periwig, fronts south by north, qualifications of, lessening, wooden leg (and head) useful to. Cape Cod clergyman, what, Sabbath-breakers, perhaps, reproved by. Captains, choice of, important. Carolina, foolish act of. Caroline, case of. Carpini, Father John de Piano, among the Tartars. Cartier, Jacques, commendable zeal of. Cass, General, clearness of his merit, limited popularity at 'Bellers's.' Castles, Spanish, comfortable accommodations in. Cato, letters of, so called, suspended _naso adunco_.

§01Quick summary

What this poem is about

This excerpt is from the satirical index of James Russell Lowell's *The Biglow Papers*, a collection of political verse and prose that lampoons American politicians, critiques the Mexican-American War, and highlights pro-slavery sentiments. The "poem" takes the form of a mock index — essentially a humorous alphabetical reference list featuring absurd, deadpan descriptions of both real and fictional figures. You might picture Lowell as a sarcastic librarian, cataloging the hypocrisy of his time.

§02Themes

Recurring themes

§03Line by line

Stanza by stanza, with notes

commended for parts, / for ubiquity,
Editor's note
The opening entries depict a "General" (probably a blend of political and military leaders from the 1840s) with a tone of mock admiration. Being praised for "ubiquity" — implying he is everywhere — serves as a backhanded compliment, suggesting he is omnipresent but not particularly effective. "Fidelity" and "consistency" are mentioned as virtues, yet they are quickly undermined by the observation that he is "in favor of war" and has a "curious valuation of principle," indicating he holds very few principles.
Cabbage-heads, the, always in majority.
Editor's note
A humorous one-liner that hits hard. "Cabbage-heads" is Lowell's way of describing the mindless voting public. The punchline suggests that ignorance makes up the democratic majority — a clever jab at mob politics and how easily demagogues can sway regular voters.
Cæsar, / tribute to,
Editor's note
Caesar's famous phrase *veni, vidi, vici* (I came, I saw, I conquered) is "censured for undue prolixity" — criticized for being overly wordy. This is pure absurdist comedy: three simple words labeled as verbose. Lowell is poking fun at the grandiose political language of his time, implying that actual politicians often use many more words to convey much less.
Caleb, a monopoly of his denied, / curious notions of, as to meaning of 'shelter,'
Editor's note
"Caleb" refers to Caleb Cushing, a Massachusetts politician known for his support of the Mexican-American War and his pro-Southern sympathies. Lowell ridicules his definition of "Anglo-Saxon," a term used by expansionists to rationalize conquest, and points out that he accuses Mexicans "not with bayonets but with improprieties." This sarcastic remark suggests that Cushing attacked them on moral grounds rather than through military means, which Lowell believes is just as dishonest.
Calhoun, Hon. J.C., / his cow-bell curfew, light of the nineteenth century to be extinguished at sound of,
Editor's note
John C. Calhoun, the influential senator from South Carolina and staunch advocate for slavery and states' rights, receives the longest and harshest entry. The "cow-bell curfew" imagery implies that Calhoun wishes to ring a bell and send the progressive spirit of the time to rest. Referring to him as "the Sir Kay of modern chivalry" likens him to King Arthur's foolish and boastful foster-brother — filled with pretension but lacking true valor. The "anchor made of a crooked pin" suggests that his political philosophy is incapable of providing any real stability.
Candidate, / presidential, letter from,
Editor's note
This lengthy entry on the presidential candidate serves as the satirical core of the index. Each sub-entry breaks down political double-talk: he "takes a revolving position" (spins on every issue), has a low "opinion of pledges" (breaks promises freely), and is referred to as "a periwig" — an outdated, fake hairpiece, all show and no substance. "Fronts south by north" means he faces every direction at the same time, committing to nothing.
Cape Cod clergyman, / what,
Editor's note
A playful, incomplete entry about a Cape Cod minister who might have reprimanded those who broke the Sabbath. The ambiguity is part of the humor—Lowell intentionally leaves it unfinished, as if the index entry itself has lost interest in completing the thought. It also lightly pokes fun at the self-righteousness often found in New England's religious culture.
Cass, / General, / clearness of his merit,
Editor's note
General Lewis Cass was the Democratic presidential candidate in 1848, known for his intentionally ambiguous position on slavery in new territories, a stance referred to as "squatter sovereignty." The phrase "Clearness of his merit" is sarcastic—his merits are far from obvious. "Limited popularity at 'Bellers's'" suggests he was so unremarkable that even regular patrons at a tavern weren't impressed. The entry wraps up with a Latin phrase hanging awkwardly on a crooked nose, leaving a final impression of something absurd and twisted.

§04Tone & mood

How this poem feels

The tone is dry, deadpan, and gleefully savage. Lowell writes like someone who's lost all patience with politicians and figured that ridicule is his best weapon now. There’s no shouting here — the humor is cold and precise, landing harder because it never raises its voice. Beneath the comedy lies a real moral outrage about slavery, the Mexican-American War, and the cowardice of those who knew better yet chose silence.

§05Symbols & metaphors

Symbols & metaphors

The Index Form: By formatting political satire as a straightforward alphabetical index, Lowell suggests that the corruption and hypocrisy in American politics are so entrenched that they can be organized like a reference book. The structure itself makes the point: this isn’t just an anomaly; it’s a *system*.
The Periwig: The presidential candidate referred to as "a periwig" — an old powdered wig — represents political performance lacking any genuine substance. It’s all about appearance without authenticity, all show with no real beliefs.
The Anchor Made of a Crooked Pin: Applied to Calhoun, this image suggests that his political philosophy — states' rights and the defense of slavery — cannot truly keep the nation stable. A crooked pin is not an anchor; it merely pretends to provide stability.
Cabbage-heads: Lowell's term for the unthinking voting majority. Cabbages are round, dense, and leafy on the outside, yet hollow at their core — a fitting metaphor for voters who follow demagogues without using their own judgment.
Veni, Vidi, Vici (censured for prolixity): Caesar's three-word phrase being labeled as too wordy is ironic: it highlights how inflated and verbose actual political speech has grown, making true brevity seem excessive in contrast.
The Revolving Position: The presidential candidate who "takes a revolving position" represents political opportunism — like a weathervane, they shift direction with the changing winds, lacking a steady moral compass.

§06Historical context

Historical context

James Russell Lowell published *The Biglow Papers* in two parts, with the first series coming out in 1848 during the Mexican-American War. This work features a Yankee dialect, fictional characters, and satirical elements — including a mock index — to critique American expansionism, the political elite, and especially the acceptance of slavery in new territories. As a passionate abolitionist, Lowell wrote at a time when figures like John C. Calhoun were arguing that slavery was a positive good, and presidential candidates such as Lewis Cass were intentionally muddying their stances to attract Southern votes. The mock index format pokes fun at the scholarly conventions of serious books, implying that American politics had sunk to such absurdity that it warranted nothing more than a librarian's dry disdain. Lowell was also a professor at Harvard and later became the editor of *The Atlantic Monthly*. His literary standing in the nineteenth century was immense, although he has fallen out of favor with modern readers.

§07FAQ

Questions readers ask

That’s precisely the point. Lowell set it up like a mock index — similar to what you’d see at the back of a serious book — to enhance the satire. By presenting politicians and their absurdities as dull reference entries, he suggests their corruption is so commonplace that it could be organized alphabetically. The humor lies in the contrast between the mundane format and the biting content.

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, General, by James Russell Lowell

, General,

What this poem is about

Recurring themes

Stanza by stanza, with notes

How this poem feels

Symbols & metaphors

Historical context

Questions readers ask

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