The Annotated Edition
TO THE DRIVING CLOUD by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
Longfellow speaks to a visiting Omaha chief as he walks through a bustling city, turning the poem into a reflection on the impact of westward expansion on Native American communities and their traditions.
- Themes
- exile, identity, mortality
§01Quick summary
What this poem is about
§02Themes
Recurring themes
§03Line by line
Stanza by stanza, with notes
Gloomy and dark art thou, O chief of the mighty Omahas; / Gloomy and dark as the driving cloud, whose name thou hast taken!
Editor's note
Longfellow begins by speaking directly to the Omaha chief, consistently using the second person throughout the poem. The chief's name translates to 'driving cloud,' and Longfellow quickly embraces that imagery — dark, shifting, and ungraspable. The tone is serious right from the outset. The stanza's final question — what will remain of your people but footprints? — hits hard like a judgment before the argument is fully presented, likening the Omaha to ancient birds whose only evidence is their fossilized imprints in stone.
How canst thou walk these streets, who hast trod the green turf of the prairies! / How canst thou breathe this air, who hast breathed the sweet air of the mountains!
Editor's note
This stanza highlights a stark contrast between the chief's natural surroundings and the urban landscape he now traverses. Longfellow portrays the city as stifling—everything feels off, from the air to the ground. However, the stanza shifts in complexity: as the chief gazes at the city with contempt, Longfellow reminds us that millions of starving Europeans also assert their claim to this land. It’s a moment that appears to divert sympathy from the chief by referencing the struggles of immigrant masses, yet it comes across today as a justification for dispossession.
Back, then, back to thy woods in the regions west of the Wabash! / There as a monarch thou reignest.
Editor's note
Here, Longfellow shifts to a romanticized image of the chief's homeland — maple leaves resembling golden palace floors, air filled with the scent of pine, the thrill of the hunt, the flowing rivers. The language is rich and appreciative, portraying the chief as a 'hero' and 'tamer of horses' in his true environment. However, the beauty of this passage is overshadowed by what follows: this paradise is already in jeopardy. The stanza acts as an elegy disguised as a celebration, lamenting a world while still describing it as vibrant.
Hark! what murmurs arise from the heart of those mountainous deserts? / Is it the cry of the Foxes and Crows, or the mighty Behemoth,
Editor's note
The final stanza shifts away from the pastoral tone to deliver a stark warning. Longfellow identifies the real dangers approaching: the 'big thunder-canoe' (a steamboat on the Missouri River), wagon trains of settlers, and the unyielding westward migration of European colonizers. He references the biblical Behemoth — a symbol of immense destruction — but asserts that even this monster poses less danger than the settlers. The poem concludes with the image of wigwam smoke drifting steadily westward, a subtle yet powerful metaphor for a people being wiped out on their own land.
§04Tone & mood
How this poem feels
§05Symbols & metaphors
Symbols & metaphors
- The driving cloud
- The chief's name and the poem's title, the driving cloud symbolizes the chief's identity and his people's fate — strong and apparent, yet ultimately unable to prevent its own scattering across the sky.
- Footprints
- Footprints, mentioned twice in the opening stanza, symbolize what remains after a people or species disappear. Longfellow likens the Omaha to extinct prehistoric birds, whose presence is known only through their fossil tracks — a stark representation of cultural and physical loss.
- The scarlet blanket
- The chief's blanket makes him stand out both visually and culturally in the city, yet it also represents his dignity and identity. It's the one item that remains distinct amidst the urban crowd surrounding him.
- The big thunder-canoe
- A steamboat on the Missouri River, this image captures the industrial-age expansion of settlers—mechanical, relentless, and uncaring about what it displaces. It stands as a stark symbol of the forces that are dismantling Indigenous life.
- Wigwam smoke
- In the closing lines, the smoke from wigwams drifting westward on the breath of 'Saxons and Celts' serves as a subtle metaphor for a community being driven from their land until there’s nowhere left to turn.
- Behemoth
- Behemoth, a creature of immense power from the Book of Job, is employed by Longfellow to illustrate that even the most fearsome natural force poses less threat to the Omaha than the influx of European settlers. This rhetorical escalation highlights the magnitude of the catastrophe they faced.
§06Historical context
Historical context
§07FAQ
Questions readers ask
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