Who are the Moors mentioned in Ballad I?

The Moors were Muslim residents of the Iberian Peninsula, which includes present-day Spain and Portugal. They were descended from North African and Arab peoples who entered Spain in 711 CE. For about seven centuries, Christian kingdoms in the north battled to take back lands from Moorish rulers in a conflict called the *Reconquista*. The battle of Rio Verde takes place within this extensive historical struggle.

A hidalgo (derived from the Spanish *hijo de algo*, meaning "son of something") was part of the lower Spanish nobility—not a duke or a count, but a person of acknowledged noble lineage who enjoyed exemptions from certain taxes and obligations. The term shows up in various ballads, indicating that these poems focus on the rights and pride of the Spanish noble class.

Did Longfellow write these poems, or did he translate them?

He translated and adapted them. The originals are anonymous medieval Spanish ballads from the *romancero* tradition. Longfellow turned them into English verse, making decisions about rhythm, word order, and emphasis. They are his take on older poems, not original works—which is why the collection is called *Ancient Spanish Ballads*.

What is the main message of Ballad II about Don Nuno?

The ballad claims that true freedom isn't something that can be bought, sold, or taxed. Don Nuno and his knights reject the king's demand not out of financial inability, but because paying would signify that the king holds power over something they view as out of his grasp. The last two lines emphasize this point: gold can be seized by force, but freedom cannot.

Why does Don Nuno call people who agree with the king "base-born"?

In medieval aristocracy, "base-born" referred to someone of low class or common status. Don Nuno is implying that only a person lacking noble heritage—without the pride and traditions that come with nobility—would agree to the king's tax. This statement serves as an insult meant to shame any knight who might consider going along with it, suggesting they would be betraying their own class.

What does it mean that they tied the tribute to their spears?

It’s a display of theatrical disdain. Rather than respectfully handing over the money, the knights stick it to the tips of their weapons and raise them high. They’re essentially saying: here’s your money, come and take it if you’re brave enough. The spear transforms a simple financial exchange into a challenge of might.

How do the two ballads connect to each other?

Both ballads focus on the Spanish nobility and their sense of honor. Ballad I mourns the noblemen who died in battle, highlighting their sacrifice as tragic and deserving of remembrance. Ballad II depicts these same noblemen standing up for their rights against a king. Together, they create a picture of a class marked by its readiness to die and its determination not to submit.

The Annotated Edition

ANCIENT SPANISH BALLADS. by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow

Summary, meaning, line-by-line analysis & FAQ.

Read aloud in ~3 minOpen reading mode →

These two brief ballads were translated and adapted by Longfellow from ancient Spanish sources.

Poet: Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
Themes: death, freedom, identity

The PoemFull text

ANCIENT SPANISH BALLADS.

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow

In the chapter with this title in Outre-Mer, besides Illustrations from Byron and Lockhart are the three following examples, contributed by Mr. Longfellow. I Rio Verde, Rio Verde! Many a corpse is bathed in thee, Both of Moors and eke of Christians, Slain with swords most cruelly. And thy pure and crystal waters Dappled are with crimson gore; For between the Moors and Christians Long has been the fight and sore. Dukes and Counts fell bleeding near thee, Lords of high renown were slain, Perished many a brave hidalgo Of the noblemen of Spain. II "King Alfonso the Eighth, having exhausted his treasury in war, wishes to lay a tax of five farthings upon each of the Castillan hidalgos, in order to defray the expenses of a journey from Burgos to Cuenca. This proposition of the king was met with disdain by the noblemen who had been assembled on the occasion." Don Nuno, Count of Lara, In anger and in pride, Forgot all reverence for the king, And thus in wrath replied: "Our noble ancestors," quoth he, "Ne'er such a tribute paid; Nor shall the king receive of us What they have once gainsaid. "The base-born soul who deems it just May here with thee remain; But follow me, ye cavaliers, Ye noblemen of Spain." Forth followed they the noble Count, They marched to Glera's plain; Out of three thousand gallant knights Did only three remain. They tied the tribute to their spears, They raised it in the air, And they sent to tell their lord the king That his tax was ready there. "He may send and take by force," said they, "This paltry sum of gold; But the goodly gift of liberty Cannot be bought and sold."

§01Quick summary

What this poem is about

These two brief ballads were translated and adapted by Longfellow from ancient Spanish sources. The first one laments a fierce battle between Moors and Christians along the banks of the Rio Verde river. The second recounts the tale of a proud Spanish nobleman, Don Nuno, who rallies his fellow knights to defiantly reject a tax they consider undignified—making a powerful statement about freedom in the process.

§02Themes

Recurring themes

§03Line by line

Stanza by stanza, with notes

Rio Verde, Rio Verde! / Many a corpse is bathed in thee,
Editor's note
The poem begins by addressing the river directly, as if it's blaming it for having witnessed so much death. Repeating the river's name creates a sense of mourning or a funeral lament. Both Moors and Christians are found dead in its waters — the river remains impartial.
And thy pure and crystal waters / Dappled are with crimson gore;
Editor's note
The contrast between "pure and crystal" water and "crimson gore" lies at the core of this stanza. The river was once innocent, but war has left its mark. The term "dappled" carries a sense of gentleness, which intensifies the jarring image of blood mingling with the water.
Dukes and Counts fell bleeding near thee, / Lords of high renown were slain,
Editor's note
The final stanza of Ballad I names the high-ranking dead — Dukes, Counts, hidalgos — to emphasize the battle's devastation. Their titles offered no protection. The term "hidalgo" (a Spanish nobleman of lower rank) roots the poem in its Iberian context.
Don Nuno, Count of Lara, / In anger and in pride,
Editor's note
Ballad II begins with a prose note that sets the stage for the political climate before diving into Don Nuno's furious reaction. His "anger and pride" drive him forward as twin forces. He isn't merely taking this personally; he views the tax as an affront to his entire class and heritage.
"Our noble ancestors," quoth he, / "Ne'er such a tribute paid;
Editor's note
Don Nuno's argument is based on tradition and history. His ancestors never paid this tax, so he won't either. This reflects the logic of aristocratic honor: what has been denied in the past cannot be given up now without losing face for generations.
"The base-born soul who deems it just / May here with thee remain;
Editor's note
This is the most pointed line in the ballad. Don Nuno distinguishes between those of noble lineage and those who aren't, suggesting that only someone of low birth would agree to the king's demand. It's a clear challenge to any knight present who might consider giving in.
Forth followed they the noble Count, / They marched to Glera's plain;
Editor's note
The mass walkout unfolds with a clear, almost military precision. Out of three thousand knights, only three chose to remain — a figure that communicates more than any speech ever could. This near-total abandonment is how the noblemen truly respond to the king.
They tied the tribute to their spears, / They raised it in the air,
Editor's note
This is a dramatic show of disdain. Elevating the tax money on the tips of their spears transforms the king's demand into an object of ridicule and spectacle instead of something to be settled with respect. It's a clear display of defiance.
"He may send and take by force," said they, / "This paltry sum of gold;
Editor's note
The closing stanza presents the main idea of the ballad clearly: the knights refuse to give up the money willingly, yet they recognize the difference between gold and liberty. Gold can be taken; liberty cannot. This straightforward, impactful statement of principle gives the entire poem its strength.

§04Tone & mood

How this poem feels

Both ballads express a sense of solemn pride. The first has an elegiac tone—mournful, slow, and weighed down by loss. The second is defiant and nearly martial, evolving from restrained anger to a powerful declaration. Longfellow uses straightforward, unembellished language, staying true to the ballad tradition, allowing the drama to unfold without unnecessary decoration.

§05Symbols & metaphors

Symbols & metaphors

Rio Verde (the river): The river bears witness and keeps a record. Its waters, tinged with blood, serve as a living reminder of the toll of war. In ballad poetry, rivers often symbolize fate or time—they continue to flow no matter how humans treat each other along their shores.
Crimson gore in crystal water: The blending of blood with pure water represents how human violence taints something natural and innocent. This contrast is intentional; the river's clarity highlights the senselessness of the bloodshed.
The tribute tied to spears: Spears serve as both weapons of war and symbols of a knight's martial identity. By linking the king's tax to these weapons, it turns a financial obligation into a military affront — the knights assert that the money is better suited at the tip of a spear than in a treasury.
The three remaining knights: Out of three thousand, only three remain. That figure represents almost complete rejection. It subtly shames the three who stayed, even though the poem never mentions them by name.
Liberty: In the final lines, liberty stands apart from gold as something that exists beyond the realm of buying and selling. It represents the poem's greatest value — the one thing that cannot be taxed, seized, or traded away.

§06Historical context

Historical context

Longfellow shared these translations in *Outre-Mer: A Pilgrimage Beyond the Sea* (1833–34), a collection of travel writings and literary reflections from his first trip to Europe. He had a strong passion for Spanish language and literature — eventually becoming a professor of modern languages at Harvard — and these ballads show his connection to the *romancero* tradition, a collection of medieval Spanish narrative verse that scholars were starting to recognize and celebrate in the early 19th century. The first ballad is based on the historical conflicts between Christian kingdoms and Moorish rulers in medieval Iberia. The second takes place during the reign of Alfonso VIII of Castile (1158–1214), who fought in the notable Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa. Longfellow's versions are more like free adaptations than direct translations, crafted to resonate with an English-speaking audience who were already familiar with the ballad meter of writers such as Walter Scott and Robert Burns.

§07FAQ

Questions readers ask

A ballad is a brief narrative poem, typically structured in four-line stanzas with a consistent rhythm, meant to convey a story in a quick and memorable way. This form has its roots in oral tradition — ballads were sung or recited long before they were written down. Longfellow opted for the ballad form in this case because his source material consisted of ballads: ancient Spanish *romances* that had been handed down through generations. The form aligns well with the content.

Poems in the same key

Dulce et Decorum Est
Wilfred Owen
Read & analyze

Similar poems

Dulce et Decorum Est — Wilfred Owen

More by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow

Browse all Henry Wadsworth Longfellow poems →

Themes in this poem

Poems about death Poems about freedom Poems about identity Poems about war

Best Poems About Love

Account

Site